Inside Toyland by Christine L. Williams Essay - 1262 Words

Inside Toyland, written by Christine L. Williams, is a look into toy stores and the race, class, and gender issues. Williams worked about six weeks at two toy stores, Diamond Toys and Toy Warehouse, long enough to be able to detect patterns in store operations and the interactions between the workers and the costumers. She wanted to attempt to describe and analyze the rules that govern giant toy stores. Her main goal was to understand how shopping was socially organized and how it might be transformed to enhance the lives of workers. During the twentieth century, toy stores became bigger and helped suburbanization and deregulation. Specialty toy stores existed but sold mainly to adults, not to children. Men used to be the workers at toy†¦show more content†¦They were unionized. At Diamond Toys they sold â€Å"whiteness†, people see white people as being more educated and Diamond Toys sold themselves as a toy store that had expert workers who were educated at what they did. They catered to the upper-class white women adults who would be buying the toy for the child. Toy Warehouse though, sold to the children. Their ideal customer was the white middle-class mom. They played on their low prices and child friendly atmosphere. At both places, the manager who did the hiring used interpellation, a stereotype view of who should work where in the store and the employees themselves ended up taking on that stereotype and acting in the manner appropriate. If the manager had a certain person in mind for the position, for example, Toy Warehouse employed white women as cashiers; it would leave men out for the job, or the same with race. An example of Interpellation at Toy Warehouse was when an African-America man named Deshay who normally worked as a merchandiser, finding lost UPC’s and setting out the merchandise, was asked to help at the registers but skillfully evaded the job. He said it was because he had too many other jobs to do, that he was not h ired to work the cash register, and that he would file a lawsuit if they forced him to work the register. Deshay saw himself in the stereotypes appropriate for black man that the hierarchy established at ToyShow MoreRelatedInside Toyland1266 Words   |  6 PagesInside Toyland, written by Christine L. Williams, is a look into toy stores and the race, class, and gender issues. Williams worked about six weeks at two toy stores, Diamond Toys and Toy Warehouse, long enough to be able to detect patterns in store operations and the interactions between the workers and the costumers. She wanted to attempt to describe and analyze the rules that govern giant toy stores. Her main goal was to understand how shopping was socially organized and how it might be transformedRead MoreToy Retailing in India7399 Words   |  30 PagesIndia, international toymaker Mattel launched toys for men in November 2005. Priced between Rs 999 and Rs 1,999, the new range features models of premium cars such as F errari Scaglietti and BMW 645 Ci in its On Road collection and Renault and Williams in its F1 Range of Hotwheels Collectibles. Giant toy stores since they do not manufacture their own products, attempt to develop brand loyalty to the stores themselves. The shopping experience itself is now sold to consumers. Retailers want

Essay on The Stigma Attached to HIV and AIDS - 1674 Words

Stigma and seroconversion are a few familiar words that come to mind when dealing with HIV/AIDS. These are a few processes that people go through when they are indentified as being HIV positive. This is when their life on whole comes into contrast. This is so because people often take things like sex for granted and it is because of this some can’t live a healthy lifestyle. Just imagine finding out that you are positive. How will society accept you? What about the stigmatization that one goes through. Can you imagine the physical, mental and emotional torments of the person’s life? Many people are left to walk in shame because of the fact that people usually do little to educate themselves about the virus. Even with the awareness of how†¦show more content†¦Over 65 million people have been infected since the beginning of the HIV/AIDS pandemic over two decades ago, but these statistics are not a true reflection of the actual numbers because many people live un knowingly with the virus. Why are the true numbers not reflected in statistics? There are many reasons that cause the true numbers not to be reflected such as the unwillingness to get tested or even not seeing the need to get tested therefore we see wrong results of statistics. It becomes impossible to get the actual number of Infected people when many people do not get tested. This is because of the ignorance of people. They often think that they are in love with an individual so they get the idea that they can have unprotected sex. The problem that arises is that one may not know how many sexual partners their significant other may have had. This then becomes a risk that can be very detrimental to physical and emotional health. It is very important that sexually active people be enlightened about their status. Knowing that you are H.I.V positive puts your life into a different perspective. It leads people to wonder if they would be accepted in society and ask themse lves; what will people say? This usually causes psychological strain on an individual. The individual would then have to live with the fear of being taunted and ridiculed. A great example ofShow MoreRelatedEssay on Impact of Stigma of HIV-AIDS in the South African Workplace1497 Words   |  6 Pagesstudy is â€Å"Impact of Stigma of HIV/AIDS in the South African workplace.† This falls under a discipline of business management in the financial management degree I am currently doing and one of the key areas of focus within business management is workplace challenges. I believe that HIV/AIDS stigmas are challenges regularly faced in the South African work environment. The purpose of this research review is to gain insight and deeper understanding of what workplace stigma towards HIV/AIDS is in the workplaceRead MoreDeveloping A Health Advocacy Campaign For Hiv Stigma Reduction899 Words   |  4 Pagesa health advocacy campaign for HIV stigma reduction. In our project, we illustrate the significant impact of the stigma towards the population infected with HIV/AIDS and suggest a potential advocacy campaign to reduce the stigma and incidence of this epidemic. Through this project, I learned what a lot of people don’t understand, is that anyone can be affected at anytime if they put themselves in a situation where they could be at risk. People identified as being HIV positive, go through a tremendousRead MoreStigma Of Hiv And Aids918 Words   |  4 PagesWith the recent passing of World AIDS day on December 1st, 2015, which followed Charlie Sheen’s recent disclosure of him being HIV-positive, revealed sad realties about society’ s relations to HIV and AIDS. So it seems opportune that this paper shed some light on the issue of stigma in relation to HIV and AIDS. This paper supports the notions that although stigma around HIV status has come a long way since its inception as an infectious disease in the 1980s, HIV stigma has not yet come to an end. AsRead MoreSexually Transmitted Diseases Are A Type Of Disease1141 Words   |  5 PagesThese different forms of contact can be oral, anal, or vaginal. STDs are seen in different forms such as bumps, rashes, or unseen to the naked eye. Some common STDs are chlamydia, herpes, syphilis, and HIV/AIDS. A person of any gender, race, or age can get an STD but there is different stigma attached to that person depending on their gender. Gender influences people to view the STD and that person who has it differently. This paper is set out to find why gender affects people’s views of STDs and howRead MoreProblem And Extent Of Hiv / Aids1539 Words   |  7 PagesProb lem and Extent of HIV/AIDS Impact in China From the narrative, Dazou merely represents one of the thousands of people who have contracted HIV through paid plasma plasma donation and unhygienic blood banks. The National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People’s Republic of China reports 501,000 reported cases of people living with HIV/AIDS. Although the pervasiveness of HIV may be low compared to China’s 1.3 billion population, certain communities have HIV prevalence rates as highRead MoreWhy Stigma Is A Profound Effect On A Person Affected By Hiv / Aids2052 Words   |  9 Pages This essay will discuss why stigma has a profound effect on a person affected by HIV/AIDS. It will first look at the definitions of stigma and explain the process and types of stigma. It will explain how people with HIV/AIDS can be affected by stigma. It will then look at the key characteristics found in stigma and explain why people with HIV/AIDS are stigmatised. It will further look at how stigma may have affected a perso n with HIV/AIDS in the 1980’s compared to how it may affect a person postRead MoreHow Hipaa Violations Affect the Medical Billing Process1652 Words   |  7 PagesHCR/220 September 23. 2012 How HIPAA Violations Affect The Medical Billing Process HIV and AIDS are two very serious diseases which first came known and reported in the U.S. in 1981. Today it is estimated that 1.7 million people in the U.S. have been infected with HIV since that date 619,000 people have already died from it. The CDC, (Center For Disease Control) estimates that every one in five people living with HIV, are unaware that they even have it. With a serious medical condition such as thisRead MoreIdentify one health condition and discuss the impact on an individual and or wider society1010 Words   |  5 Pagesimpact on an individual and or wider society This essay will focus on the health condition of (HIV) Human immunodeficiency virus and its impact on an individual’s wellbeing. A number of key dictionary definitions will follow. According to the Oxford Dictionaries (2013) Health is defined as â€Å"A person’s medical and physical condition†. HIV is human immunodeficiency virus, a retrovirus which causes Aids. Oxford dictionaries (2013). These definitions refer to the Medical Model of health which focusesRead MoreDiversity, Inclusion, And Equality Within The World1514 Words   |  7 Pagesas their expression of freedom. During this era HIV/AIDS was introduced into the LGBTQ community, and it led to the deaths of many people. HIV/AIDS was often mistaken as a â€Å"gay† disease, as it ran rampant through the community. While the community saw sex as one of their few rights or freedoms to have without intervention there were many sexually active gay men. Without the worry of pregnancy it was rare that protection was used, and thus HIV/AIDS spread quickly through the LGBTQ community. AtRead MoreWhy Hiv / Aids Is A Serious Disease Essa y1169 Words   |  5 PagesWHY HIV/AIDS IS A SERIOUS DISEASE HIV/AIDS is a disease that has more than 34 million people infected worldwide. This disease has 5,700 new infections every day, resulting in 240 more every single hour. This disease has caused 21.8 million deaths before the year 2000 and caused 1.8 million in 2012 alone. The same disease has one in three people in sub-Saharan Africa infected, and has no cure. These aforementioned facts, plus countless others presented are staggering and are compiled by leading organisations

Post Colonial Essay Free Essays

PostColonial Literature Essay 3. With reference of at least two short stories from the course, consider in what ways either Desai, Munro, Galgut and Rushdie’s stories are Postcolonial texts. You may consider issues such as home and homelessness, absences in the text, place, positionality or anything you feel is relevant to your attempt at decoding postcolonial identities. We will write a custom essay sample on Post Colonial Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Post-colonial literature can be considered as a body of literary writings that reacts to the discourse of colonization. Post-colonial writers focus on issues such as de-colonization and the political and cultural independence of people formerly subjugated to colonial rule. However post-colonial literature cannot be described only by the definition above, many other issues have to be considered in order to fully understand post-colonial texts. In order to understand post-colonial texts, one has to focus on two post-colonial writers: Anita Desai and Damon Galgut. To begin with, Anita Desai is an Indian novelist and short story writer, especially noted for her sensitive portrayal of the inner life of her female characters. Desai prefers the concerns of Westernized, middle-class characters rather than those facing the majority of India. Desai has comments on her work â€Å"My novels are no reflection of Indian society, politics or character. They are my private attempt to seize upon the raw material of life. † â€Å"Diamond Dust†(2000), a second Desai’s short story collection, features a selection of tales set in North America and India, Indian characters and concerns figure in all of them, illuminating Desai’s thematic preoccupation with the psychological effects on multiculturalism. A short story called â€Å"Five Hours to Simla or Faisla† was written by Desai. Shubha Tiwari in â€Å"Critical responses to Anita Desai† argues that â€Å"Five Hours to Simla Or Faisla is one of the most successful stories in this collection because of the clarity of the motives in it. It is a humorous story about the adamant attitude of a Sardarji causing a good deal of tension to the travelers on the way to Simla. † In my opinion, â€Å"Five hours to Simla or Faisla† can be called as a post-colonial text for many reasons. First of all, I think that key character is a crucial thing while talking about post-colonial texts. A key character in this text is really important as short stories tend to be more interesting in characterisation. In this story the key character is the mother’s character as it shows tradition-bound patriarchal culture in India: mother’s responsibility to take care of children and not having a say in the family, being less important than the father / husband. At that stage Desai tries to focus on middle-class women in contemporary India as they attempt to overcome social limitations. Writers’ qualification is also very important in post-colonial texts as it reflects why the author chose to talk about this particular subject in their text. Desai’s qualification is feminine and we can see why mother’s ( the wife’s) character is such an important thing in this short story. Her qualification is also somehow engaged in as to why her daily life is occupied with the complexities of modern Indian culture from a feminine perspective, while highlighting the female Indian predicament of maintaining self-identity as an individual woman. Being an immigrant, Desai sees differences between her culture and Western world. Talking about the mother’s character, she tries to show the limited opportunities for women in Indian society; she tries to find the dissolution of traditional Indian values and Western stereotypes of India. Talking about central characters, we can consider family as central characters in this story as Desai focus on family relationship so much in this text. She talks from a third person perspective â€Å"she†, â€Å"he† and she never mentioned family member names, so she place very long distance between readers and family-unnamed characters makes a little bit difficult to talk about them for readers. Secondly, language/style is also really important in post-colonial texts. Desai’s literary language is not her native language, but English. She uses fluid language and a less flaky, descriptive style. She writes in a very natural way. This text is really interesting in linguistic terms, for example Desai in this text uses words such as kohl which means German politician who served as chancellor of West Germany. We can see here that Desai tries to focus on her real roots as her mother was German. Thirdly, it is worth to talk about identity in this text as identity is a key issue in post-colonial text. Desai use this story to solidify, through criticism and celebration, an emerging national identity, which she has taken on the responsibility of representing. Desai in this text represents post-independence India while she is talking about traffic jam. Traffic jam is like a symbol (symbolism is also an important thing in most post-colonial texts) of the stagnancy of the Indian society: India had never formerly existed and so it a huge issue – national identity crises in India. Traffic jam also symbolizes that members of a postcolonial society have an identity which has been shaped jointly by their own unique cultural and community history, intertwined with that of the colonial power. Desai tries to show cultural and social changes that have swept India since its independence from Britain in 1947. Key passages also play a vital role in post-colonial texts. The text I have chosen is: †She did not need to draw upon her thumb juices for long. The news of the traffic jam on the highway had spread like ripples from a stone thrown. From somewhere, it seemed from nowhere for there was no village bazaar, marketplace or stalls visible in that dusty dereliction, wooden barrows came†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (p. 122) I think that this passage shows that the market place finally appeared in Indian society. Market place at this stage is very important as it represents the centre of the community; it connects community together again after British oppression; it is like a sense of community even in stagnancy; it represents a whole nation again. It is always important to look at the title in post-colonial texts. The â€Å"Five hours to Simla or Faisla† title is no exception. Of course, we first look at Five hours to Simla because it makes sense for us- and the text in general represents it, but when we are looking deeper in the text context we make sure that Faisla is an important part of the title too. Faisla in English means judgment/ verdict, so how it is relative to this text? Traffic jam as I said is a symbol of stagnation of the Indian society. It also represents that Indian people are waiting someone to take control of India; to connect all religions together into one India identity/ into one native India. India was damaged by being colonized, so who will bring this country together? Indian people really need someone to take a verdict/leadership. Opening and ending of the text are essential parts of analysis of the post colonial texts too. Desai ends her text with no great judgment and resolution. Short story writers are tend to leave things open. They can’t really solve the problems, but they can represent the problems from all angles and allows people to judge. Another short story, which I would like to analyze is â€Å"The Lover† from â€Å"In a Strange Room† (2010) written by Damon Galgut, a South African novelist. I will start with a speaking person. The narrator is sometimes referred to in the first person singular, sometimes in the third. All this makes connection and at the same time disconnection in one’s mind, especially because Galgut is free and easy with conventional punctuation. Galgut writing style and punctuation is unusual in a way that he does not use any questions marks. Identity is also very important figure in this text. We can see that identity in this text is a migrant identity- the main character in this text is lost in this world, â€Å"he has not made a home for himself†. By this text, the author means that the character has not found a place in the world that he could call home, he doesn’t feel right, and is trying to find a place where he would feel accepted and content. Therefore he travels to Zimbabwe, without having planned anything â€Å"No particular intention brings him to Zimbabwe, all those years ago. He simply decides one morning to leave and gets on a bus that same night. † He also tries to find this place, that in his imagination he could call home. In the text the narrator says â€Å"Somebody has a map and knows which way to go†, he refers to how other people are different than him in a way that they have planned their routine, and have a place they can call home, whereas he hasn’t got any routes or plans, as he feels lost. In my opinion, him travelling around, symbolizes the fact that he is lost. He is trying to change his surroundings, he is trying to find a community, home, to find someone to love. â€Å"If I was with somebody, he thinks, with somebody I loved, then I could love the place and even the grave too, I would be happy to be there. † He emphasizes the fact that he is desperately trying to find a lover, a person who he would love, and that that person would make the surrounding right for him, that only then he would feel happy in the place. The character feels guilt, because he is trying to find a place that he could call home, and a person that he could call his lover, but fails to do that, and therefore he feels guilty. The title â€Å"The Lover† reflects the whole point of this story. In my opinion, the title refers to that person that the main character is looking for throughout his journey. That person in my opinion is the Irish woman that he meets in the hotel and starts his journey. We are told that the moment when they leave the hotel, him and the Irish woman, is the moment when the â€Å"real journey begins†. Sometimes it happens as you leave your house, sometimes it’s a long way from home. † We are told that even though the main character of the story has travelled for a while, his journey has only begun at that time when he, and his ‘lover’, leave the hotel, to go to Malawi. Even though there is no evidence that the woman is feeling any romantic feelings for him, his jo urney only begins now, and this Irish woman gives him hope, and he thinks that she could be her lover, in my opinion. Class issues are very obvious in this text. The officials at the border of Malawi are described as very ignorant, and incompetent. This is due to the fact that when they were told by the tourists, that they were informed by their embassy that they wouldn’t require a Visa. After that the officials shouted at them, and told them that they were wrong, and sent them back to get the Visa. This shows that the officials aren’t well informed, and also badly mannered. This goes to show that the stereotype that most African’s are very narrow minded is still very much true. They wouldn’t allow foreign people to go through the boarded without a Visa, even though it wasn’t required, but they did allow some South African’s through without a Visa. In conclusion, I believe that in order to understand post-colonial text you may consider issues such as identity, story title, characters, language, style, key passages, home and homelessness, place and etc. References: Anita Desai (2000). Diamond Dust, â€Å"Five Hours to Simla or Faisla†. Damon Galgut (2010). In a Strange Room, â€Å"The Lover†. Hart, Jonathan; Goldie Terrie (1993). â€Å"Post Colonial theory†. In: http://books. google. com/books? id=CTJCiLG9AeoCpg=PA155#v=onepageqf=false Word count: 1,967. 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Risk Identification and Planning free essay sample

Risks can have a classification system. This system classifies risks in relation to their locus of action. That is the organisational level at which the risk will have the most impact. Project Risks: are those risks within the project boundary that could affect the delivery of the business outcome that the project is set up to deliver. In other words, those that could affect the delivery of the project’s objectives. Business Risks: on the other hand are those risks that affect the operation of the business outcome once it has been delivered by the project. Environmental Risks: are those risks that are external to the project environment but which nevertheless can affect the project objectives. For example, the Gulf War had a devastating effect upon gas field projects in Kuwait in 1990. External change risks: are those risks that are beyond the immediate project environment but which could have a major impact. We will write a custom essay sample on Risk Identification and Planning or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Frequently in contractual terms these may include force majeure events. However, external change risks go beyond force majeure, for example because of a shift in Government policy or in its interpretation of a law. The main aims of risk management are to: ?Identify potential risks; Assess the probability and impact of each risk; ?Identify alternative actions that prevent the risk from happening (avoidance), or if it does happen ameliorate the impact (reduction), or provide a strategy for dealing with the accepted consequences of such a risk occurring (acceptance); ? Implement and monitor those actions that are cost effective and necessary to the successful delivery of the project objectives (NB: project objectives not project); ? Provide feedback from experiential learning to improve the risk management of future projects and to inform the training and development of project managers. Risk Management is therefore an integral part of project management not an additional extra. It should be used to drive, inform and support planning. Effective risk management should: †¢Anticipate and influence events before they happen by taking a pro-active approach; †¢Provide knowledge and information about predicted events; †¢Inform and where possible improve the quality of decision making, recognising the preferred hierarchy of risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk control, and risk acceptance; †¢Avoid covert assumptions and false definition of risks; Make the project management process overt and transparent; †¢Assist in the delivery of project objectives in terms of benchmarked quality, time and cost thresholds; †¢Allow the development of scenario planning in the event of the identification of a high impact risk; †¢Provide improved contingency planning; †¢Provide verifiable records of risk planning and risk control. To achieve effective and efficient risk management risk planning is required. The commonest form of risk planning is the Risk Management Plan. Risk Management at various stages in the construction process No investment or even short-term production process can be planned without taking into account the associated risk. In reality every project contains a component of risk which results in the necessity to assess and reduce the associated threats. Of course investors have procedures based on many years of experience allowing for identification and reduction of emerging risk components. Risk Management is a continuous process which should be conducted at every stage of the project; from its emergence until completion and use. It is important to eliminate risks as early as possible, for instance, at the stage of analysis of the project value and cost analysis during the project implementation. The basic task is to identify the problem as well as the significance and benefits associated with the risk management process. This identification can be captured in a Risk Plan. Figure 1: Correlation between the Construction process and Risk Management Figure 1 below presents a correlation between the various levels of risk management and the subsequent stages of the construction process. There are no rigorous divisions between the subsequent stages of the risk management process. It is worth remembering, however, that along with the progress of work, the approach to the problem of risk should be changing which results in the necessity to consult various specialists depending on the specific characteristics of the issue. Risk Identification Risk identification involves determining which risks might affect the project and documenting their characteristics. Participants in risk identification need to be selected on who is best placed to identify risks in a given technical or management area and generally includes the following: †¢Project team; †¢Risk management team; †¢Subject matter experts – for example ground conditions engineers; †¢Customer(s); †¢End users if different from customer; †¢Other project managers; †¢Stakeholders; †¢Outside experts for example public authority representatives. Risk identification is an iterative process; the first pass may be performed by a part of the project team or by the risk management team. The entire project team and primary stakeholders then make a second iteration. To achieve unbiased analysis persons who are not involved in the project should perform a final iteration. Often the simple and effective risk responses can be developed and even implemented as soon as the risks are identified. Risk identification can be undertaken top-down and bottom-up. Top-down identification provides a rapid start to the assessment and commences with an overall view of the programme. It should be cause or ‘risk area’ oriented to give a good coverage. Bottom-up identification involves a systematic comprehensive coverage of the project management and technical deliverables; it looks at the project requirements, plans, specifications, resourcing, contracts, sub-contractor, sub-contract characteristics and project interfaces and interactions. Risk identification requires an understanding of the project’s mission, scope and objectives of the owner, sponsor and/ or stakeholders. Output of other processes should be reviewed to identify possible risks across the project; these may include: †¢Product descriptions; †¢Schedule and cost estimates; Resources plan; †¢Procurement plan; †¢Assumptions; †¢Constraints. In practise Project Managers have widely adopted the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) as an essential tool for most or all of the applications already mentioned. The WBS is the keystone of any project and it has broad application to nearly every aspect of the project through its life-cycle. In general practice the WBS is used for: †¢Systems engineering; †¢Planning and budgeting; †¢Funding; †¢Cost estimating; †¢Scheduling; †¢Measuring performance; †¢Configuration management; †¢Baseline change control; †¢Project control tools development; Testing and commissioning; †¢Integrated logics support. The WBS needs to represent the entire project: everything that is part of the project in terms of products, hardware, software, services, data, facilities management and other elements that completely define the entire scope of work. The WBS should also reflect the methods to be used to plan, control, manage and execute the work. Typical project risks that could be encountered are shown in Figure 2 below. Project Management RiskExamples Customer Customer focus, specification quality, changing requirements. Project management Planning, resourcing, resource capabilities, dependencies, stakeholders, organization / interfaces, communication, constraints, process, transition and services ProcurementPlanning, vendor appraisals, critical lead-times, reliance on single source, component obsolescence, market volatility Commercial Subcontractor agreement, interpretation of Terms and conditions FinancialProfit margin, accurate cost forecasts, payment plan, penalty charges EngineeringFeasibility, technology transfer, complexity, dependencies, resourcing, special standards/ documentation requirements, prototypes, maturity, manufacture, process ManufacturingMake/ buy planning, design, production capacity, new tools/ equipment requirements, test requirements, new manufacturing or test processes, incorporating change during manufacture System design and integrationSystems complexity, interfaces, human factors, software, hardware TechnologyTechnology or technical approach chosen to achieve the project objective Subcontra ctor capabilitiesAbility of contractors or other vendors to perform project objectives, including Project management strategy and ability InterfacesWorking in a multi-project environment, interfacing with existing operational activities and other stakeholders. EnvironmentalEnvironmental laws and compliances, licences and permits Regulatory involvementInvolvement by any regulatory agency such as EA, HSE or by national , state and local governments Political visibilityPolitical significance or visibility to national, state or local governments, specialinterests and the public Number of key project participantsInvolvement by other than a primary owner for the decision making and management ComplexityIssues with design criteria, functional requirements, complex design features, breakthrough technology or existing as-built condition documents Labour skills availability and productivityAdequate resources, speciality resources, rapid labour force build-up experience and commitment, and exposure to environmental extremes Number of locations/ site access/ site ownershipGeographic dispersion, time zone differences, site ownership and access issues Funding/ cost sharingProject duration, involvement / funding by other parties, and stability of monetar y inputs Magnitude / type of contaminationPresence of hazardous or mixed waste Quality requirementsRequirements for precision work or other QA requirements; types of QA methods Site Ground conditions, flood plane, contaminated ground, archaeological finds Public involvementCitizen interest or involvement, rights of way Figure 2: Typical Project Management Risks In looking at the list in Figure 2 it would be fair to assume that projects are increasing in technical complexity. As such this complexity increases the risk of not meeting the success criteria, as established in the concept and planning phase of the project with the client and also related to the three key Project Management variables. Historically, project decision making has been heavily biased toward meeting the cost and schedule goals without the same level of thought to the consequences of the project’s technical objective(s). This has been the legacy of the earned value performance measurement approach to Project Management, which measured success primarily by concentrating on the two elements where a preponderance of the known data could be measured. Tools and Techniques for Risk Identification Remember the acronym SLEEPT: Social; Legal; Economic; Environmental; Political; Technological. This can be used for the disaggregation of Exogenous or Endogenous Risks to assist in identification of risks. There are a number of tools and techniques available for use in risk identification, these are described below: Documentation reviewPerforming a structured review of high level and detailed project plans and assumptions prior project files and other information is generally the initial step taken by project teams. Assumptions analysisEvery project is conceived and developed based on a set of hypotheses, scenarios or assumptions validity. Assumptions analysis is a technique that explores that assumption’s validity. It identifies risks to the project from inaccuracy, inconsistency or incompleteness of assumptions. Diagramming techniquesDiagramming techniques may include cause and effect diagramme (also known as Ishikawa or fishbone diagrams). These are useful for identifying causes of risks. Systems or process flow charts – these show how various elements of a system interrelate and the mechanism of causation. ChecklistsChecklists for risk identification can be developed based on historical information and knowledge that has been accumulated from previous similar projects and from other sources of information. One advantage is that risk identification is quick and simple. One disadvantage is that it is impossible to build an exhaustive checklist of risks, and the user may be effectively limited to the categories in the list. Care should be taken to explore items that do not appear on a standard checklist to see if they seem relevant to the specific project. The checklist should itemise all types of possible risks to the project. It is important to review the checklist as a formal step of every project-closing procedure to improve the list of potential risks and the description of risks for subsequent projects. Checklists are seldom exhaustive but can help to ensure that the most common key areas of project risk are considered. They are particularly useful as â€Å"prompts† to facilitate brainstorming. NB: A sample checklist provided at the end of this section. Information- gathering techniques Examples of information gathering techniques used in risk identification can include: †¢Brainstorming – this is probably the most frequently used risk identification technique. The goal is to obtain a comprehensive lists of risks that can be addressed later  in the qualitative and quantitative risk analysis processes. The project team usually brainstorms, although a multidisciplinary set of experts can also use this technique. Under the leadership of a facilitator, these people generate ideas about project risk. Sources of risk are identified in broad scope and posted for all to examine during the meeting. As with all brainstorming the key thing at this point is to capture everything. Consideration of which risks to accept or to manage, comes later. †¢The Delphi technique which is a way to reach a consensus of experts on a subject such as project risk. Project risk experts are identified but participate anonymously. A facilitator uses a questionnaire to solicit ideas about the important project risks. The responses are submitted and are then circulated to the experts for further comment. Consensus on the main project risks may be reached in a few rounds of this process. The Delphi technique helps to reduce bias in the data and keeps any person from having undue influence on the outcome. †¢Interviewing. Risks can be identified by interviews of experienced Project Managers or subject-matter experts. The person responsible for risk identification identifies the appropriate individuals, briefs them on the project and provides information such as the WBS and list of assumptions. The interviewees identify risks to the project based on the experience, project information and other sources that they find useful. †¢SWOT analysis covering Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats ensures examination of the project from each of the SWOT perspectives to increase the breath of the risks considered. Learning from experienceMake use of near neighbour comparisons of similar projects, locations, suppliers, customer etc Figure 3: Tools and Techniques for Risk Identification In identifying projects risk that may affect a project these can be organized into risk categories and should reflect common sources of risk for the industry or application area. Categories include: †¢Technical, quality or performance risks – such as reliance on unproven or complex technology, unrealistic performance goals, changes to the technology used or the industry standards during the project; †¢Project management risks – such as poor allocation of time and resources, inadequate quality of the project plan, poor use of Project Management disciplines; †¢Organizational risks – such as costs, time and scope objectives that are internally inconsistent, lack of prioritization of projects, inadequacy or interruption of funding and resource conflicts with other projects in the organization; †¢External risks – such as changing legal or regulatory environment, labour issues, changing owner priorities, country risk and weather. Force majeure risks such as earthquakes, floods, civil unrest generally require disaster recovery actions rather than risk management. Having used a number of tools and techniques to identify the risks for a project it is important that the risk statement is correctly phrased and it is recommended that this should follow the Condition- Cause- Consequence approach, for example: There is a risk that lack of support will cause the project to stall resulting in team being deployed on other work. There is a risk that our customer will be unable to specify the internal fit-out requirements in a timely fashion caused by their lack of experience in procuring this type of equipment resulting in delayed payment, project overrun, and delayed initiation of support contracts. There is a risk that the client will wish to bring forward the completion date for the project and cause us to execute the work by additional shift working or more resources resulting in an overall cost increase from that contractually agreed. Risk Planning Risk planning is the process of deciding how to approach and plan for the risk management activities of a project. This is important to ensure that the level, type and visibility of risk management are commensurate with both the risk and importance of the project to the organization. Figure 4: Elements of Risk Management Planning The inputs to the Risk Management Planning phase of the project are shown in Figure 4 and are described below: †¢The Organization’s risk management policies. Some organizations may have predefined approaches to risk analysis and responses that have to be tailored to a particular project; †¢Predefined roles and responsibilities and authority levels for decision-making will influence planning; †¢Stakeholder risk tolerances. Different organizations and different individuals have different risk tolerances. These may be expressed in policy statements or revealed in actions; †¢Template for the organization’s risk management plan. Some organizations have developed templates (or a pro-forma standard) for use by the project team. The organization will continuously improve the template, based on its application and usefulness in the project; †¢Work breakdown structure (WBS) for the project. The main tool for the Risk management Planning is the Planning meetings, at which the project team develop the risk management plan. Attendees usually include the Project Manager, the project team leaders, anyone in the organization with responsibility to manage the risk planning and execution activities, key stakeholders, and others as and when needed. They can make use of the risk management templates and other inputs as appropriate. The primary output for the meeting is an agreed management approach to risks that the project will face and which is described in a formal risk management plan that details how risk identification, qualitative and quantitative analysis, response planning, monitoring and control will be undertaken during the project life-cycle. The risk management plan does not address responses to individual risks – this is accomplished in the risk response plan. As such the risk management plan may: †¢Include a methodology to define the approaches, tools and data sources that may be used to perform risk management of the project. Different types of assessments may be appropriate depending upon the stage of the project, the amount of information available and the flexibility remaining in risk management; †¢Detail the roles and responsibilities and define the lead, support and risk management team membership for each type of action in the risk management plan. Risk management teams organized outside of the project may be able to perform more independent, unbiased risk analysis of the project than those from the direct project team; †¢Establish a budget for risk management for the project; Define how often the risk management process will be performed throughout the project life-cycle. Results should be developed early enough to affect decisions, indeed these decisions should be periodically reviewed during the project execution. Typically a Project manager will review the risks on a monthly basis; sometimes this review is more frequent; †¢Detail the Scoring and Implementation methods appropriate for the type and timing of the qualitative and quantitative risk analysis being performed. It is good practise for the methods and scoring to be determined in advance to ensure consistency; †¢Describe the threshold criteria for risks that will be acted upon, by whom, and in what manner. The project sponsor and customer may have different thresholds and the acceptable threshold forms the target against which the project team can measure the effectiveness of the risk response plan execution; †¢Describe the content and format of the risk response plan and how the results of the risk management processes will be documented, analyzed and communicated to the project team, internal and external stakeholders, sponsors and others. Many organizations employ a graded approach to risk management which may have a number of criteria for determining the application of the graded approach such as financial value, complexity, visibility, risk, strategic risk etc. This could lead to a clearer definition of the application of the graded approach – â€Å"the risk–based graded approach. The risk analysis provides a formalised and documented method or technique to determine the graded approach. Without a more formalised risk analysis process all interested parties have the opportunity to identify and assess the impact of a wide variety of potentially adverse risks on the project’s technical objectives. Cost and schedule adjustments can then be incorporated to present a more realistically achievable estimate of the resources necessary to attain project success. The resultant baseline becomes a much more powerful tool in managing the project and its expectations. Indeed, without this analysis, the confidence in completing the project to its success criteria must be necessarily low. It is important to document the risk management process so that all parties are aware of the implementation and review process and a typical Risk Management Plan is shown as Figure 5. TitleDetails IntroductionProject / Product Overview: †¢Summary of requirement. †¢Critical success factors. †¢Project Life-cycle. Control of PlanOverview: †¢Review and reissue frequency. Scope and ObjectivesScope of work: †¢Scope, complexity and scale of project. Initial assessment of difficulty, scale, precedence, impact of failure. Objectives: †¢Deliverables: eg risk register, report, mitigation plans, reporting requirements for project team, main contractor and sub-contractor(s). Identification StrategyIdentification: †¢Describe the identification process: how the risks are identified eg brainstorming, checklists etc. The discipline of describing risks. †¢How ownership is established and recorded eg Risk Register. †¢How new risks are identifies and mitigated risks retired. †¢When risks are identified and at what level. Allocation: †¢Describe the process to assign and apportion risk to other stakeholders eg sub-contractors, Partners, other areas of the organization. Assessment StrategyAnalysis (qualitative): †¢Describe the method used to establish post mitigation criticality scores from probability and impact assessments. Evaluation(quantitative): †¢Describe the approach to be taken to evaluate collective cost, project and performance exposures. Response strategy: Describe how performance, cost and effectiveness benefits will be calculated to determine courses of action (option selection). †¢Describe how pre-emptive risk action will be fully integrated into the overall project programme. †¢Describe how corrective fallback plans will be incorporated into the overall project programme. †¢Describe how risks are to be mitigated, transfer, sharing and acceptance. †¢Describe fallback measures to recover in the event of risk occurrence. †¢Identify how associated costs and effectiveness of action will be established and recorded. †¢Identify how contingency will be released to support effective mitigation action on the occurrence of risk Process ManagementRisk Management process: †¢Process objectives. Outline process description, clearly identifying the supporting audits and reviews including contract risk reviews and technical risk reviews. Contingency Management: †¢Describe the principles and methods for determining the correct overall level of project contingency. †¢Allocating technical and managerial contingencies and movements between the two. †¢Authorising pre-emptive mitigation spend. †¢Authorising the release of contingency funds to support corrective risk mitigation. †¢Authorising risk retirements. Risk Management tools: †¢Identifying the tools and methods being used to support the risk assessment, support requirements and maintenance responsibilities. Risk Register control: Describe the process for maintaining the register, indicate how items are to be entered, updated and deleted. †¢How associated mitigation / promotion actions/ plans / programmes and events will be recorded and reviewed. †¢Detail where the Register will be kept and how it will be accessed and by whom. Risk Reporting: †¢Describe the reports to be generated from the process including details of: what reports will be generated; what the reporting cycle will be; and at what level eg Top 20 risks †¢Describe the process for identification of new risks, deletion and retirement of old risks. OrganisationProject responsibilities: †¢Identify clearly the role, authority and responsibility with respect to  risk and mitigation actions of the Project Manager/ Director, Risk Manager, Risk Owner, Risk Actionee, Project Team members. †¢Provide a list of people who will have responsibility for regular review of the risks, detailing their roles. †¢Provide a summary o f internal and external parties involvement with the risk management process eg customer, sub-contractor, suppliers, user, government agencies. Functional responsibilities: †¢Define the main functional interfaces (customer/ supplier) between the various project groups or areas. †¢Identify how risk and associated contingency will be allocated to the functional areas and managed across the organizational interfaces. ProgrammeMobilisation programme.